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Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. The ability to create intelligent machines has intrigued humans since ancient times, and today with the advent of the computer and 50 years of research into AI programming techniques, the dream of smart machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat the best human chessplayer, and countless other feats never before possible. Find out how the military is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and how in the near future Artificial Intelligence may impact our lives. 

The History of Artificial Intelligence

 

 

Introduction:

Evidence of Artificial Intelligence folklore can be traced back to ancient Egypt, but with the development of the electronic computer in 1941, the technology finally became available to create machine intelligence. The term artificial intelligence was first coined in 1956, at the Dartmouth conference, and since then Artificial Intelligence has expanded because of the theories and principles developed by its dedicated researchers. Through its short modern history, advancement in the fields of AI have been slower than first estimated, progress continues to be made. From its birth 4 decades ago, there have been a variety of AI programs, and they have impacted other technological advancements.

The Era of the Computer:

In 1941 an invention revolutionized every aspect of the storage and processing of information. That invention, developed in both the US and Germany was the electronic computer. The first computers required large, separate air-conditioned rooms, and were a programmers nightmare, involving the separate configuration of thousands of wires to even get a program running. The 1949 innovation, the stored program computer, made the job of entering a program easier, and advancements in computer theory lead to computer science, and eventually Artificial intelligence. With the invention of an electronic means of processing data, came a medium that made AI possible.

The Beginnings of AI:

Although the computer provided the technology necessary for AI, it was not until the early 1950's that the link between human intelligence and machines was really observed. Norbert Wiener was one of the first Americans to make observations on the principle of feedback theory feedback theory. The most familiar example of feedback theory is the thermostat: It controls the temperature of an environment by gathering the actual temperature of the house, comparing it to the desired temperature, and responding by turning the heat up or down. What was so important about his research into feedback loops was that Wiener theorized that all intelligent behavior was the result of feedback mechanisms. Mechanisms that could possibly be simulated by machines. This discovery influenced much of early development of AI. In late 1955, Newell and Simon developed The Logic Theorist, considered by many to be the first AI program. The program, representing each problem as a tree model, would attempt to solve it by selecting the branch that would most likely result in the correct conclusion. The impact that the logic theorist made on both the public and the field of AI has made it a crucial stepping stone in developing the AI field.

In 1956 John McCarthy regarded as the father of AI, organized a conference to draw the talent and expertise of others interested in machine intelligence for a month of brainstorming. He invited them to Vermont for "The Dartmouth summer research project on artificial intelligence." From that point on, because of McCarthy, the field would be known as Artificial intelligence. Although not a huge success, (explain) the Dartmouth conference did bring together the founders in AI, and served to lay the groundwork for the future of AI research.

Knowledge Expansion

In the seven years after the conference, AI began to pick up momentum. Although the field was still undefined, ideas formed at the conference were re-examined, and built upon. Centers for AI research began forming at Carnegie Mellon and MIT, and a new challenges were faced: further research was placed upon creating systems that could efficiently solve problems, by limiting the search, such as the Logic Theorist. And second, making systems that could learn by themselves. In 1957, the first version of a new program The General Problem Solver(GPS) was tested. The program developed by the same pair which developed the Logic Theorist. The GPS was an extension of Wiener's feedback principle, and was capable of solving a greater extent of common sense problems. A couple of years after the GPS, IBM contracted a team to research artificial intelligence. Herbert Gelerneter spent 3 years working on a program for solving geometry theorems.
While more programs were being produced, McCarthy was busy developing a major breakthrough in AI history. In 1958 McCarthy announced his new development; the LISP language, which is still used today. LISP stands for LISt Processing, and was soon adopted as the language of choice among most AI developers.

In 1963 MIT received a 2.2 million dollar grant from the United States government to be used in researching Machine-Aided Cognition (artificial intelligence). The grant by the Department of Defense's Advanced research projects Agency (ARPA), to ensure that the US would stay ahead of the Soviet Union in technological advancements. The project served to increase the pace of development in AI research, by drawing computer scientists from around the world, and continues funding.

The Multitude of programs

The next few years showed a multitude of programs, one notably was SHRDLU. SHRDLU was part of the microworlds project, which consisted of research and programming in small worlds (such as with a limited number of geometric shapes). The MIT researchers headed by Marvin Minsky, demonstrated that when confined to a small subject matter, computer programs could solve spatial problems and logic problems. Other programs which appeared during the late 1960's were STUDENT, which could solve algebra story problems, and SIR which could understand simple English sentences. The result of these programs was a refinement in language comprehension and logic. Another advancement in the 1970's was the advent of the expert system. Expert systems predict the probability of a solution under set conditions. For example:
Because of the large storage capacity of computers at the time, expert systems had the potential to interpret statistics, to formulate rules. And the applications in the market place were extensive, and over the course of ten years, expert systems had been introduced to forecast the stock market, aiding doctors with the ability to diagnose disease, and instruct miners to promising mineral locations. This was made possible because of the systems ability to store conditional rules, and a storage of information.
During the 1970's Many new methods in the development of AI were tested, notably Minsky's frames theory. Also David Marr proposed new theories about machine vision, for example, how it would be possible to distinguish an image based on the shading of an image, basic information on shapes, color, edges, and texture. With analysis of this information, frames of what an image might be could then be referenced. another development during this time was the PROLOGUE language. The language was proposed for In 1972,
During the 1980's AI was moving at a faster pace, and further into the corporate sector. In 1986, US sales of AI-related hardware and software surged to $425 million. Expert systems in particular demand because of their efficiency. Companies such as Digital Electronics were using XCON, an expert system designed to program the large VAX computers. DuPont, General Motors, and Boeing relied heavily on expert systems Indeed to keep up with the demand for the computer experts, companies such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp specializing in creating software to aid in producing expert systems formed. Other expert systems were designed to find and correct flaws in existing expert systems.

The Transition from Lab to Life

The impact of the computer technology, AI included was felt. No longer was the computer technology just part of a select few researchers in laboratories. The personal computer made its debut along with many technological magazines. Such foundations as the American Association for Artificial Intelligence also started. There was also, with the demand for AI development, a push for researchers to join private companies. 150 companies such as DEC which employed its AI research group of 700 personnel, spend $1 billion on internal AI groups. Other fields of AI also made there way into the marketplace during the 1980's. One in particular was the machine vision field. The work by Minsky and Marr were now the foundation for the cameras and computers on assembly lines, performing quality control. Although crude, these systems could distinguish differences shapes in objects using black and white differences. By 1985 over a hundred companies offered machine vision systems in the US, and sales totaled $80 million.
The 1980's were not totally good for the AI industry. In 1986-87 the demand in AI systems decreased, and the industry lost almost a half of a billion dollars. Companies such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp together lost more than $6 million, about a third of there total earnings. The large losses convinced many research leaders to cut back funding. Another disappointment was the so called "smart truck" financed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The projects goal was to develop a robot that could perform many battlefield tasks. In 1989, due to project setbacks and unlikely success, the Pentagon cut funding for the project.
Despite these discouraging events, AI slowly recovered. New technology in Japan was being developed. Fuzzy logic, first pioneered in the US has the unique ability to make decisions under uncertain conditions. Also neural networks were being reconsidered as possible ways of achieving Artificial Intelligence. The 1980's introduced to its place in the corporate marketplace, and showed the technology had real life uses, ensuring it would be a key in the 21st century.

AI put to the Test

The military put AI based hardware to the test of war during Desert Storm. AI-based technologies were used in missile systems, heads-up-displays, and other advancements. AI has also made the transition to the home. With the popularity of the AI computer growing, the interest of the public has also grown. Applications for the Apple Macintosh and IBM compatible computer, such as voice and character recognition have become available. Also AI technology has made steadying camcorders simple using fuzzy logic. With a greater demand for AI-related technology, new advancements are becoming available. Inevitably Artificial Intelligence has, and will continue to affecting our lives.

 Introduction

In the quest to create intelligent machines, the field of Artificial Intelligence has split into several different approaches based on the opinions about the most promising methods and theories. These rivaling theories have lead researchers in one of two basic approaches; bottom-up and top-down. Bottom-up theorists believe the best way to achieve artificial intelligence is to build electronic replicas of the human brain's complex network of neurons, while the top-down approach attempts to mimic the brain's behavior with computer programs.

Neural Networks and Parallel Computation

The human brain is made up of a web of billions of cells called neurons, and understanding its complexities is seen as one of the last frontiers in scientific research. It is the aim of AI researchers who prefer this bottom-up approach to construct electronic circuits that act as neurons do in the human brain. Although much of the working of the brain remains unknown, the complex network of neurons is what gives humans intelligent characteristics. By itself, a neuron is not intelligent, but when grouped together, neurons are able to pass electrical signals through networks.

The neuron "firing", passing a signal to the next in the chain.
Research has shown that a signal received by a neuron travels through the dendrite region, and down the axon. Separating nerve cells is a gap called the synapse. In order for the signal to be transferred to the next neuron, the signal must be converted from electrical to chemical energy. The signal can then be received by the next neuron and processed. Warren McCulloch after completing medical school at Yale, along with Walter Pitts a mathematician proposed a hypothesis to explain the fundamentals of how neural networks made the brain work. Based on experiments with neurons, McCulloch and Pitts showed that neurons might be considered devices for processing binary numbers. An important back of mathematic logic, binary numbers (represented as 1's and 0's or true and false) were also the basis of the electronic computer. This link is the basis of computer-simulated neural networks, also know as Parallel computing.
A century earlier the true / false nature of binary numbers was theorized in 1854 by George Boole in his postulates concerning the Laws of Thought. Boole's principles make up what is known as Boolean algebra, the collection of logic concerning AND, OR, NOT operands. For example according to the Laws of thought the statement: (for this example consider all apples red)

• Apples are red-- is True
• Apples are red AND oranges are purple-- is False
• Apples are red OR oranges are purple-- is True
• Apples are red AND oranges are NOT purple-- is also True

Boole also assumed that the human mind works according to these laws, it performs logical operations that could be reasoned. Ninety years later, Claude Shannon applied Boole's principles in circuits, the blueprint for electronic computers. Boole's contribution to the future of computing and Artificial Intelligence was immeasurable, and his logic is the basis of neural networks. McCulloch and Pitts, using Boole's principles, wrote a paper on neural network theory. The thesis dealt with how the networks of connected neurons could perform logical operations. It also stated that, one the level of a single neuron, the release or failure to release an impulse was the basis by which the brain makes true / false decisions. Using the idea of feedback theory, they described the loop which existed between the senses ---> brain ---> muscles, and likewise concluded that Memory could be defined as the signals in a closed loop of neurons. Although we now know that logic in the brain occurs at a level higher then McCulloch and Pitts theorized, their contributions were important to AI because they showed how the firing of signals between connected neurons could cause the brains to make decisions. McCulloch and Pitt's theory is the basis of the artificial neural network theory.
Using this theory, McCulloch and Pitts then designed electronic replicas of neural networks, to show how electronic networks could generate logical processes. They also stated that neural networks may, in the future, be able to learn, and recognize patterns. The results of their research and two of Weiner's books served to increase enthusiasm, and laboratories of computer simulated neurons were set up across the country.
Two major factors have inhibited the development of full scale neural networks. Because of the expense of constructing a machine to simulate neurons, it was expensive even to construct neural networks with the number of neurons in an ant. Although the cost of components have decreased, the computer would have to grow thousands of times larger to be on the scale of the human brain. The second factor is current computer architecture. The standard Von Neuman computer, the architecture of nearly all computers, lacks an adequate number of pathways between components. Researchers are now developing alternate architectures for use with neural networks.
Even with these inhibiting factors, artificial neural networks have presented some impressive results. Frank Rosenblatt, experimenting with computer simulated networks, was able to create a machine that could mimic the human thinking process, and recognize letters. But, with new top-down methods becoming popular, parallel computing was put on hold. Now neural networks are making a return, and some researchers believe that with new computer architectures, parallel computing and the bottom-up theory will be a driving factor in creating artificial intelligence.

Top Down Approaches; Expert Systems

Because of the large storage capacity of computers, expert systems had the potential to interpret statistics, in order to formulate rules. An expert system works much like a detective solves a mystery. Using the information, and logic or rules, an expert system can solve the problem. For example it the expert system was designed to distinguish birds it may have the following:
 

Charts like these represent the logic of expert systems. Using a similar set of rules, experts can have a variety of applications. With improved interfacing, computers may begin to find a larger place in society.

Chess

AI-based game playing programs combine intelligence with entertainment. On game with strong AI ties is chess. World-champion chess playing programs can see ahead twenty plus moves in advance for each move they make. In addition, the programs have an ability to get progressably better over time because of the ability to learn. Chess programs do not play chess as humans do. In three minutes, Deep Thought (a master program) considers 126 million moves, while human chessmaster on average considers less than 2 moves. Herbert Simon suggested that human chess masters are familiar with favorable board positions, and the relationship with thousands of pieces in small areas. Computers on the other hand, do not take hunches into account. The next move comes from exhaustive searches into all moves, and the consequences of the moves based on prior learning. Chess programs, running on Cray super computers have attained a rating of 2600 (senior master), in the range of Gary Kasparov, the Russian world champion.

Frames

On method that many programs use to represent knowledge are frames. Pioneered by Marvin Minsky, frame theory revolves around packets of information. For example, say the situation was a birthday party. A computer could call on its birthday frame, and use the information contained in the frame, to apply to the situation. The computer knows that there is usually cake and presents because of the information contained in the knowledge frame. Frames can also overlap, or contain sub-frames. The use of frames also allows the computer to add knowledge. Although not embraced by all AI developers, frames have been used in comprehension programs such as Sam.

This page touched on some of the main methods used to create intelligence. These approaches have been applied to a variety of programs. As we progress in the development of Artificial Intelligence, other theories will be available, in addition to building on today's methods.

What we can do with AI

We have been studying this issue of AI application for quite some time now and know all the terms and facts. But what we all really need to know is what can we do to get our hands on some AI today. How can we as individuals use our own technology? We hope to discuss this in depth (but as briefly as possible) so that you the consumer can use AI as it is intended.

First, we should be prepared for a change. Our conservative ways stand in the way of progress. AI is a new step that is very helpful to the society. Machines can do jobs that require detailed instructions followed and mental alertness. AI with its learning capabilities can accomplish those tasks but only if the worlds conservatives are ready to change and allow this to be a possibility. It makes us think about how early man finally accepted the wheel as a good invention, not something taking away from its heritage or tradition.

Secondly, we must be prepared to learn about the capabilities of AI. The more use we get out of the machines the less work is required by us. In turn less injuries and stress to human beings. Human beings are a species that learn by trying, and we must be prepared to give AI a chance seeing AI as a blessing, not an inhibition.

Finally, we need to be prepared for the worst of AI. Something as revolutionary as AI is sure to have many kinks to work out. There is always that fear that if AI is learning based, will machines learn that being rich and successful is a good thing, then wage war against economic powers and famous people? There are so many things that can go wrong with a new system so we must be as prepared as we can be for this new technology.

However, even though the fear of the machines are there, their capabilities are infinite Whatever we teach AI, they will suggest in the future if a positive outcome arrives from it. AI are like children that need to be taught to be kind, well mannered, and intelligent. If they are to make important decisions, they should be wise. We as citizens need to make sure AI programmers are keeping things on the level. We should be sure they are doing the job correctly, so that no future accidents occur.

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AIAI Teaching Computers Computers

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Does this sound a little Redundant? Or maybe a little redundant? Well just sit back and let me explain. The Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute has many project that they are working on to make their computers learn how to operate themselves with less human input. To have more functionality with less input is an operation for AI technology. I will discuss just two of these projects: AUSDA and EGRESS.

AUSDA is a program which will exam software to see if it is capable of handling the tasks you need performed. If it isn't able or isn't reliable AUSDA will instruct you on finding alternative software which would better suit your needs. According to AIAI, the software will try to provide solutions to problems like "identifying the root causes of incidents in which the use of computer software is involved, studying different software development approaches, and identifying aspects of these which are relevant to those root causes producing guidelines for using and improving the development approaches studied, and providing support in the integration of these approaches, so that they can be better used for the development and maintenance of safety critical software."

Sure, for the computer buffs this program is a definitely good news. But what about the average person who think the mouse is just the computers foot pedal? Where do they fit into computer technology. Well don't worry guys, because us nerds are looking out for you too! Just ask AIAI what they have for you and it turns up the EGRESS is right down your alley. This is a program which is studying human reactions to accidents. It is trying to make a model of how peoples reactions in panic moments save lives. Although it seems like in tough situations humans would fall apart and have no idea what to do, it is in fact the opposite. Quick Decisions are usually made and are effective but not flawless. These computer models will help rescuers make smart decisions in time of need. AI can't be positive all the time but can suggest actions which we can act out and therefor lead to safe rescues.

So AIAI is teaching computers to be better computers and better people. AI technology will never replace man but can be an extension of our body which allows us to make more rational decisions faster. And with Institutes like AIAI- we continue each stay to step forward into progress.

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No worms in these Apples

by Adam Dyess

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Apple Computers may not have ever been considered as the state of art in Artificial Intelligence, but a second look should be given. Not only are today's PC's becoming more powerful but AI influence is showing up in them. From Macros to Voice Recognition technology, PC's are becoming our talking buddies. Who else would go surfing with you on short notice- even if it is the net. Who else would care to tell you that you have a business appointment scheduled at 8:35 and 28 seconds and would notify you about it every minute till you told it to shut up. Even with all the abuse we give today's PC's they still plug away to make us happy. We use PC's more not because they do more or are faster but because they are getting so much easier to use. And their ease of use comes from their use of AI.

All Power Macintoshes come with Speech Recognition. That's right- you tell the computer to do what you want without it having to learn your voice. This implication of AI in Personal computers is still very crude but it does work given the correct conditions to work in and a clear voice. Not to mention the requirement of at least 16Mgs of RAM for quick use. Also Apple's Newton and other hand held note pads have Script recognition. Cursive or Print can be recognized by these notepad sized devices. With the pen that accompanies your silicon note pad you can write a little note to yourself which magically changes into computer text if desired. No more complaining about sloppy written reports if your computer can read your handwriting. If it can't read it though- perhaps in the future, you can correct it by dictating your letters instead.

Macros provide a huge stress relief as your computer does faster what you could do more tediously. Macros are old but they are to an extent, Intelligent. You have taught the computer to do something only by doing it once. In businesses, many times applications are upgraded. But the files must be converted. All of the businesses records but be changed into the new software's type. Macros save the work of conversion of hundred of files by a human by teaching the computer to mimic the actions of the programmer. Thus teaching the computer a task that it can repeat whenever ordered to do so.

AI is all around us all but get ready for a change. But don't think the change will be harder on us because AI has been developed to make our lives easier.

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The Scope of Expert Systems

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As stated in the 'approaches' section, an expert system is able to do the work of a professional. Moreover, a computer system can be trained quickly, has virtually no operating cost, never forgets what it learns, never calls in sick, retires, or goes on vacation. Beyond those, intelligent computers can consider a large amount of information that may not be considered by humans. But to what extent should these systems replace human experts? Or, should they at all? For example, some people once considered an intelligent computer as a possible substitute for human control over nuclear weapons, citing that a computer could respond more quickly to a threat. And many AI developers were afraid of the possibility of programs like Eliza, the psychiatrist and the bond that humans were making with the computer. We cannot, however, over look the benefits of having a computer expert. Forecasting the weather, for example, relies on many variables, and a computer expert can more accurately pool all of its knowledge. Still a computer cannot rely on the hunches of a human expert, which are sometimes necessary in predicting an outcome.
In conclusion, in some fields such as forecasting weather or finding bugs in computer software, expert systems are sometimes more accurate than humans. But for other fields, such as medicine, computers aiding doctors will be beneficial, but the human doctor should not be replaced. Expert systems have the power and range to aid to benefit, and in some cases replace humans, and computer experts, if used with discretion, will benefit human kind.





Artificial Intelligence Links

• AAAI: American Association for Artificial Intelligence The AAAI is a nonprofit scientific society devoted to the promotion and advancement of AI.
• ACM: the Association for Computing Machinery ACM is an international scientific dedicated to advancing information technology
• AIAI: Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute AIAIis maintaining and improving its position for the application of knowledge based techniques.
• AT&T Bell Labs The main page for AT&T Bell Labs where new Artificial Intellegence is being researched and applied.
• Carnegie Mellon University Artificial Intelligence Repository A collection of files, programs and publications of interest to Artificial Intelligence research
• MIT: AI lab at Massachusetts Institute of Technology The MIT AI research ranges from learning, vision, robotics to development of new computers.
• IJCAI Home Page The IJCAI is the main international gathering of researchers in AI.
• Neural Networks-Applications of AI Data and AI technology for businesses and education
• Thoughts on AI
• Neural Networks
• Famous People Of AI

 

Artificial Intelligence

Bayesian networks
- Dynamic Bayesian Networks Representation, Inference And Learning - Kevin Patrick Murphy.pdf
- Learning Bayesian Networks - Neapolitan R. E..pdf

computer vision

- Computer Modeling and Simulation Techniques for Computer Vision Problems - Ming-Chin Lu.pdf
- Computer Vision - Linda Shapiro.pdf
- Computer Vision 2d ed - Dand h Ballard.pdf
- Computer Vision A Modern Approach - Forsyth , Ponce.pdf
- Computer Vision and Applications A Guide for Students and Practitioners - Bernd Jahne.pdf
- Feature Extraction in Computer Vision and Image Processing - Mark S. Nixon.pdf
- Fundamentals of Computer Vision - Mubarak Shah.pdf
- Handbook of Computer Vision Algorithms in Image Algebra, 2nd Ed - Gerhard X. Ritter.pdf
- Handbook of Computer Vision and Applications Volume 1 Sensors and Imaging - Bernd Jahne.pdf
- Handbook of Computer Vision and Applications Volume 2 Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition - - Bernd Jahne.pdf
- Handbook of Computer Vision and Applications Volume 3 Systems and Applications - Bernd Jahne.pdf
- Handbook Of Mathematical Models In Computer Vision - Nikos Paragios.pdf
- Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision 2ed - Hartley R., Zisserman A.pdf
- Vision with Direction A Systematic Introduction to Image Processing and Computer Vision - Josef Bigun.pdf

Evolutionary computation

- Data Mining Using Grammar Based Genetic Programming and Applications - Wong, Cheung.pdf
- Evolutionary Computation for Modeling and Optimization - Daniel Ashlock.pdf
- Evolutionary computation, vol.1 basic algorithms and operators - Baeck T., Fogel D.B., Michalewicz Z.djvu
- Evolutionary computation, vol.2 advanced algorithms and operators - Baeck T., Fogel D.B., Michalewicz Z.djvu
- FRONTIERS OF EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION - Anil Menon.pdf
- Genetic Programming An Introduction On the Automatic Evolution of Computer Programs and its Applications - Morgan Kaufmann.pdf
- Genetic programming Complex adaptive systems - Koza J.R..pdf
- Genetic Programming Theory and Practice II - John Koza.pdf
- The Handbook of Evolutionary Computation - Kenneth De Jong.pdf

Fuzzy systems

- FLEXIBLE NEURO-FUZZY SYSTEMS Structures, Learning and Performance Evaluation - Leszek Rutkowski.pdf
- Fusion Of Neural Networks, Fuzzy Systems And Genetic Algorithms - Lakhmi C. Jain , N.M. Martin.pdf
- Fuzzy Control Systems Design and Analysis A Linear Matrix Inequality Approach - Kazuo Tanaka, Hua O. Wang.pdf
- Fuzzy Logic in Embedded Microcomputers and Control Systems - Walter Banks.pdf
- Fuzzy Sets And Fuzzy Information Granulation Theory - lotfi Zadeh.pdf
- FUZZY SETS AND FUZZY LOGIC Theory and Applications - GEORGE J. KLIR , BO YUAN.pdf
- Fuzzy Sets And Systems Theory And Applications - Didier Dubois , Henri Prade.pdf
- FUZZY SETS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS TO COGNITIVE AND DECISION PROCESSES - Lotfi A. Zadeh , King-Sun Fu.pdf
- Neuro-Fuzzy and Soft Computing A Computational Approach to Learning and Machine Intelligence - Jyh-Shing Roger Jang.djvu
- Simulating Continuous Fuzzy Systems - James J. Buckley.pdf

General

- Advances in Applied Artificial Intelligence - John Fulcher.pdf
- Advances in Artificial Intelligence � SBIA 2004 - Ana L.C. Bazzan , Sofiane Labidi.pdf
- Agent-Oriented Programming - From Prolog to Guarded Definite Clauses - Matthew M. Huntbach.pdf
- Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach - Stuart J. Russell , Peter Norvig.pdf
- Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Behavioral and Cognitive Modeling of the Human Brain - Konar Amit.pdf
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE and SOFTWARE ENGINEERING Understanding the Promise of the Future - Derek Partridge.pdf
- Artificial Intelligence Applications and Innovations - Bramer Max.pdf
- Artificial Intelligence Strategies, Applications, and Models Through Search 2d ed - Christopher Thornton.pdf
- Artificial Intelligence Through Prolog - Neil C Rowe.pdf
- Artificial Intelligence Today Recent Trends and Development - Manuela Veloso.pdf

Intelligent Systems

- Hybrid architectures for intelligent systems - Lotfi A. Zadeh.chm
- Intelligent Communication Systems - Nobuyoshi Terashima.pdf
- Intelligent Systems for Engineers and Scientists 2d ed - Adrian A. Hopgood.pdf
- Intelligent Systems Fusion, Tracking, and Control - GeeWah Ng.pdf

Knowledge representation

- Knowledge representation reasoning and declarative problem solving with Answer sets - Chitta Baral.pdf

Knowledge-based systems

- Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems for Engineers - Krishnamoorthy , S. Rajeev.pdf
- Building Expert Systems in Prolog - Dennis Merritt.pdf
- Fuzzy Expert Systems and Fuzzy Reasoning - William Siler.pdf
- The handbook of applied expert systems - Jay Liebowitz.pdf

Machine learning

- An Introduction to Support Vector Machines and Other Kernel-based Learning Methods - Nello Cristianini , John Shawe.chm
- Data Mining Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques 2d ed - Morgan Kaufmann.pdf
- Introduction to Machine Learning - Nils J Nilsson.pdf
- Machine Learning - Tom Mitchell.pdf
- Machine Learning And Its Applications - Georgios Paliouras.pdf
- Machine Learning in Computer Vision - N. SEBE.pdf
- Machine Learning, Game Play, and Go - David Stoutamire.pdf
- Machine Learning, Neural And Statistical Classification - Michie , Spiegelhalter , Taylor.pdf
- PROBLEM SOLVING WITH REINFORCEMENT LEARNING - Gavin Adrian Rummery.pdf
- Reinforcement Learning An Introduction - Richard S. Sutton , Andrew G. Barto.pdf
- Statistical Machine Learning For Information Retrieval - Adam Berger.pdf

natural language processing

- Formal Syntax and Semantics of Programming Languages - Kenneth Slonneger.pdf
- Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing - Christopher D. Manning.pdf
- Natural Language Processing for Online Applications Text Retrieval,Extraction and Categorization - Peter Jackson , Isabelle Moulinier.pdf
- Ontological Semantics - Sergei Nirenburg , Victor Raskin.pdf
- Speech and Language Processing An Introduction to Natural Language Processing, Computational Linguistics and Speech Recognition - D.djvu

Neural networks

- An Introduction to Neural Networks - Patrick van der Smagt.pdf
- Analysis And Applications Of Artificial Neural Networks - LPG Veelenturf.pdf
- Artificial Neural Networks - Colin Fyfe.pdf
- Artificial Neural Networks in Real-life Applications - Juan R. Rabunal.pdf
- C Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic - Valluru B. Rao.pdf
- Foundations of Neural Networks, Fuzzy Systems, and Knowledge Engineering - Nikola Kazabov.pdf
- Fusion of Neural Networks, Fuzzy Systems and Genetic Algorithms Industrial Applications - Lakhmi C. Jain , N.M. Martin.pdf
- Kalman Filtering and Neural Networks - Simon Haykin.pdf
- Machine Learning, Neural And Statistical Classification - Cc Taylor.pdf
- Methods and Procedures for the Verification and Validation of Artificial Neural Networks - Brian J. Taylor.pdf
- Neural Networks - A Comprehensive Foundation - Simon Haykin.pdf
- Neural Networks Algorithms, Applications,and Programming Techniques - James A. Freeman.pdf
- Programming Neural Networks in Java - JeffHeaton.pdf
- RECENT ADVANCES IN ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS Design and Applications - Lakhmi Jain.pdf
- Recurrent Neural Networks Design And Applications - L.R. Medsker.pdf
- Static and Dynamic Neural Networks From Fundamentals to Advanced Theory - Madan M. Gupta, Liang Jin, Noriyasu Homma.pdf
- The Handbook Of Brain Theory And Neural Networks 2Nd Ed - Michael A Arbib.pdf

Pattern recognition

- An Introduction to Pattern Recognition - Michael Alder.pdf
- Evolutionary Synthesis of Pattern Recognition Systems - Bir Bhanu.pdf
- Introduction to Statistical Pattern Recognition 2nd Ed - Keinosuke Fukunaga.pdf
- Particle Swarm Optimization Methods for Pattern Recognition and Image Processing - Mahamed G. H. Omran.pdf
- Pattern recognition and image preprocessing 2nd ed -Sing T. Bow.pdf
- Pattern Recognition in Speech and Language Processing - WU CHOU.pdf
- Pattern Recognition with Neural Networks in C - Abhijit S. Pandya, Robert B. Macy.chm
- Statistical Pattern Recognition 2nd Ed - Andrew R. Webb.pdf

Soft Computing
- Foundations Of Soft Case-based Reasoning - SANKAR K. PAL.pdf
- Intelligent Control Systems Using Soft Computing Methodologies - Ali Zilouchian.pdf
- Learning And Soft Computing - Support Vector Machines, Neural Networks, And Fuzzy Logic Models - Vojislav Kecman.pdf


Lisp
- A Practical Theory of Programming - Eric C.R. Hehner.pdf
- An Introduction To Programming In Emacs Lisp, 2Nd Ed - Robert J. Chassell.pdf
- Basic Lisp Techniques - David J. Cooper.pdf
- Common Lisp - A Gentle Introduction To Symbolic Computation - David S. Touretzky.pdf
- Common Lisp - An Interactive Approach - STUART C. SHAPIRO.pdf
- Common Lisp the Language, 2nd Edition - Guy L. Steele.pdf
- How to Design Programs An Introduction to Computing and Programming - Matthias Felleisen.pdf
- lisp book - Gary D. Knott.pdf
- On LISP Advanced Techniques for Common LISP - Paul Graham.pdf
- Practical Common Lisp - Peter Seibel.chm
- Successful Lisp How to Understand and Use Common Lisp - David B. Lamkins.pdf
- Writing GNU Emacs Extensions - Bob Glickstein.pdf

Scheme
- An Introduction to Scheme and its Implementation.pdf
- Concrete Abstractions An Introduction to Computer Science Using Scheme - Max Hailperin, Barbara Kaiser, and Karl Knight.pdf
- Programming In Scheme - Eisenberg , Abelson.djvu
- Simply Scheme Introducing Computer Science 2d ed - Brian Harvey , Matthew Wright.pdf
- Teach Yourself Scheme in Fixnum Days - Dorai Sitaram.pdf
- The Scheme Programming Language 3rd ed - Kent Dybvig.chm

Prolog
- Adventure in Prolog - Amzi.pdf
- Learn Prolog Now! - Patrick Blackburn, Johan Bos , Kristina Striegnitz.pdf
- Logic, Programming and Prolog 2d ed - Ulf Nilsson , Jan Maluszynski.pdf
- Prolog and Natural Language Analysis - Fernando C. N. Pereira , Stuart M. Shieber.pdf
- Prolog Programming A First Course - Paul Brna.pdf
- The Art of Prolog 2nd Ed - Leon Sterling , Ehud Shapiro.pdf


Download

Code:

http://hotfile.com/dl/61539246/5460066/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part1.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61539455/0b48b73/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part2.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61539645/919d401/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part3.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61540047/5e6e40a/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part4.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61540321/27961d0/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part5.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61540576/421baf0/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part6.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61540800/d7ae8b3/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part7.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61540913/a0505ec/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part8.rar.html
http://hotfile.com/dl/61541177/4366bb7/Artificial_Intelligence___Lisp_and_Prolog_eBook_Collection.part8.rar.html

Downloadable programs and source code:

• UCPOP: a planner similar to the POP planner in the text. Common Lisp plus CLIM.
• Otter: a theorem prover. C.
• DTP: a theorem prover. Common Lisp.
• Epilog: theorem prover and logical language toolkit. Binary for Mac, HP.
• CLIPS: a Tool for Building Expert Systems. C.
• Belief net software: a listing of both free and commercial belief net software.
• CLASP: package for visualizing and analyzing statistics. Common Lisp.
• Irvine Machine Learning programs.
• MLC++: a machine learning library. C++.
• List of public domain software maintained by Matt Ginsberg. Common Lisp, Prolog.
• CMU AI Repository of software packages.

ODE Architect

ODE Architect (ODEA) is a Windows software package that provides a highly interactive software environment for constructing and exploring your own ODE models of real-world phenomena, no matter whether they lead to linear or nonlinear systems. ODEA is sold by John Wiley & Sons on CD-ROM with an accompanying book. (It can be purchased from a variety of retailers
The free, cross-platform Java application, ODE Toolkit provides some, but not all, of the functionality of ODE Architect.

ODE architect

Components

 

There are three components in the ODEA package: the ODE Architect Tool, the Multimedia ODE Architect, and the ODE Library.
ODEA was designed to be easy to use. Navigational paths are clearly marked and simple to follow using a point-and-click technique. At any place in the package you will be able to call up content menus and access material in any order.

The ODE Architect Tool

 

The ODE Architect Tool is a first-rate, research-quality numerical ODE solver and graphics package. The solvers are based on those developed by Profs. L. F. Shampine and I. Gladwell of Southern Methodist University. For a delightfully readable account on using numerical solvers in teaching ODEs, see their paper,

Shampine, L. F., and Gladwell, I., “Teaching Numerical Methods in ODE Courses” in the CODEE-inspired book Revolutions in Differential Equations, edited by Michael Kallaher, MAA Notes # 50.

The Tool employs a graphical user interface to enter and edit equations, control solver settings and features, and to create and edit a wide vartiety of 2D and 3D graphics. A second mode of operation, the Expert Mode, provides access to more advanced features.
The robust Tool will solve systems of up to ten first-order ODEs which can be entered using a simple, natural scripting language. Auxiliary functions involving the state variables can be defined. A solver/grapher feature for discrete dynamical systems is also available from the Tool.
A variety of engineering functions such as square waves, sawtooth waves and step functions are included in the Tool function library. Time and parameter animations of solution data are supported. Initial conditions for planar systems can be entered by clicking in a graph window or via the keyboard. Graph scales can be set automatically or manually. Numerical values of solutions can be viewed in tabular form. Parameter-sensitive analysis is made easy with a built-in parameter sweep tool.
Graphs are editable and you can scale and label axes, mark equidistant-in-time orbital points, color the graphs, change the line styles, overlay graphs of functions and solution curves for different ODEs—all with no programming or special commands to remember

Multimedia ODE Architect

 

Multimedia ODE Architect illustrates the modeling process in detail, with dozens of examples, each with its own theme, supported by highly interactive simulations. Students explore the modeling process via “what-if” scenarios and exercises. Along the way, students are guided to build their own ODEs which model a given situation and then solve them numerically and graphically.

The ODE Library

 

The ODE Library has dozens of preprogrammed, editable, and interactive ODE files covering a wide range of topics from mathematics, physics, chemistry, population biology, and epidemiology. There are also many ODEs to illustrate points such as data compression, ODEs with singular coefficients, bifurcation, limit cycles, and so on. Each Library file has explanatory text along with the ODEs and include illustrative graphs. The Library files are organized into folders and they have descriptive titles to facilitate browsing. These files also provide a marvelous way to learn how to use the Architect Tool.

Modelling and Simulation of Integration of Web system, Digital and Conventional printing

- a premise is that a graphic product is not completed when it
comes from the presses
- in addition it should be prepared:
- PDF publication of low and high quality,
- Web interactive publication,
- CD publication,
- DVD publication,
- video publication,
- webTV publication,
- WAP publication,
- gradual designer’s publication
the Internet technology, especially a Web technology, has been
integrated with the existing and hybrid printing technology
into a new management system
- modern printing house should also evolve into a communication
company
- digital information is an asset that one needs to and knows
how to receive, send, convert, sort out, browse and assess

1) A Prepress Project eArchive:
- latest versions of final documents in
original files of a prepress program;

2) An Image eArchive:
- a Pixel digital eArchive :5 categories using the criteria of
resolution (72 dpi, 300 dpi, 600 dpi, 1200 dpi, custom), 3 or
more categories using the criteria of the color system (RGB,
CMYK, HSB...), 3 or more categories according to the file and
compression type (TIFF, GIF, JPEG,...)
- an Analog eArchive :indexes according to the material type
(reflex originals and transparent originals)
- a Vector eArchive: categories according to the contents and
formats (logotype, scheme, .fh, .cdr, .ai, eps ...).

3) The Text eArchive:
- searching on ASCII or DOC format, separate coding for MAC
and PC

4) A Font eArchive:
- fonts according to categories from Level1 fonts to
TrueType and various coding of Croatian characters;

5) PDF eArchives:
- PDF high-resolution eArchives (for high-quality press)
- PDF web eArchives (low resolution);

6) A PS eArchive:
- PS files with an easy conversion into a PDF as required;

7) A Conventional Offset Archive:
- a photolite eArchive
- an offset plate eArchive;

8) A WWW eArchive:
- an eArchive containing web projects: original designer
files, (Flash, Shockwave, Director etc.) as well as a final
HTML upload code
- a WebTV eArchive
- a WAP eArchive
- a Web technology eArchive: JavaScript base, CGI base,
CSS base i.e. a file base of all web technologies used for
a web publication;

9) A Video eArchive:
- according to the file categories (MPEG, AVI, QuickTime,
...). All video files for multiple use in the crossweb publishing
from printing of a frozen image, interactive Web
to a DVD, TV or a Web TV publication;

10) An Audio eArchive:
- categories according to formats (MP3, WAV, RealAudio,
...);

11) A CD eArchive;

12) A DVD eArchive;

13) A Variable Press Data Base:
- a master information data base: backgrounds of variable
press created by using various techniques
- a variable information data base: for a variable press using
a digital press technology
- an algorithm base: if algorithms are used for a variable
press (typical for algorithms with the stohastic number
generator);

14) A Knowledge Data Base:
- a service knowledge data base: guidelines for installation
and repairwork, spare parts’ code;
- A Troubleshooting eArchive: solving difficulties in the
entire system;
- Workflow eArchives: procedure for the entire job
workflow to be filled by the employee responsible for the
entire job, it contains all comments and exceptions from
the rule, this is used for financial assessment of present
and future jobs;

15) A Business eArchive:
- a management eArchive: management decisions, assessments
and analysis
- a distribution eArchive: distribution channels and alternations
- a customer eArchive: all digital links, individuals, resources
and experience
- an administrative eArchive: all administrative documents
of a company
- a new model must be developed for almost each company due
to differences in current state, Internet infrastructure and financial
possibilities
- models for conventional printing house
- to demonstrate the hybrid situation i.e. the operation with
digital printing capacity
- to demonstrate hybrid model with the integrated web
technology
- to create data bases i.e. archives to serve as a foundation
for integration with the Web technology
- models for digital printing house
- to demonstrate various situations and possibilities enabled
by the Web technology already
- difficulties related to searching
- presented a situation of investing into a conventional
printing capacity, such as an offset for hybrid individualization
(master+variable)
- models for hybrid printing houses
- integration with the Web technology and its various use
as an urgent matter

Conclusion

- “Digital” is entering processes from design to the press, from
creation to the publishing, from unique items to the reproduction
with large editions, from prepress to the eArchive
- The integration of Web, press and ePublishing has a crucial
importance for the survival of the press as an integral system
- methods for simulating virtual graphic systems are extremely
welcome
- contribute to the discussion on the creation of eArchives,
links with the prepress, press and postpress.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis (from Greek ὑπόθεσις; plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for an observable phenomenon. The term derives from the Greek, ὑποτιθέναι – hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." For a hypothesis to be put forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis.
In a related but distinguishable usage, the term hypothesis is used for the antecedent of a proposition; thus in proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If question.
The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis," or "being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis," can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis."

Uses

In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates dissects virtue with a method used by mathematicians,^[1] that of "investigating from a hypothesis."^[2] In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplifies cumbersome calculations.^[3] Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of this usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.^[4]
In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation on the basis of hypotheses in order to answer questions and explore observations.
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis classes as not yet useful, and must wait for others who might come afterward to make possible the needed observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.

Scientific hypothesis

People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis — often called an "educated guess"^[5] — because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.
According to Schick and Vaughn,^[6] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:

• Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
• Simplicity (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities)
• Scope – the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
• Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
• Conservatism – the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems

Evaluating hypotheses

Karl Popper's formulation of hypothetico-deductive method, which he called the method of "conjectures and refutations", demands falsifiable hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by observation). According to this view, a hypothesis cannot be "confirmed", because there is always the possibility that a future experiment will show that it is false. Hence, failing to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis: it remains provisional. However, a hypothesis that has been rigorously tested and not falsified can form a reasonable basis for action, i.e., we can act as if it were true, until such time as it is falsified. Just because we've never observed rain falling upward, doesn't mean that we never will—however improbable, our theory of gravity may be falsified some day.
Popper's view is not the only view on evaluating hypotheses. For example, some forms of empiricism hold that under a well-crafted, well-controlled experiment, a lack of falsification does count as verification, since such an experiment ranges over the full scope of possibilities in the problem domain. Should we ever discover some place where gravity did not function, and rain fell upward, this would not falsify our current theory of gravity (which, on this view, has been verified by innumerable well-formed experiments in the past) – it would rather suggest an expansion of our theory to encompass some new force or previously undiscovered interaction of forces. In other words, our initial theory as it stands is verified but incomplete. This situation illustrates the importance of having well-crafted, well-controlled experiments that range over the full scope of possibilities for applying the theory.
In recent years philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, both former students of Popper, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis.

Hypotheses, Concepts and Measurement

Concepts, as abstract units of meaning, play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Concepts are the basic components of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between concepts. For example, a simple relational hypothesis such as “education increases income” specifies a positive relationship between the concepts “education” and “income.” This abstract or conceptual hypothesis cannot be tested. First, it must be operationalized or situated in the real world by rules of interpretation. Consider again the simple hypothesis “Education increases Income.” To test the hypothesis the abstract meaning of education and income must be derived or operationalized. The concepts should be measured. Education could be measured by “years of school completed” or “highest degree completed” etc. Income could be measured by “hourly rate of pay” or “yearly salary” etc.
When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual framework. When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel “An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived.”^[7]
Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between a conceptual framework and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (interpreted framework). “The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific theory”^[8] Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are ready to be tested. In “actual scientific practice the process of framing a theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the theoretician.”^[9] It is, however, “possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually.”^[10]

Statistical hypothesis testing

Main article: Statistical hypothesis testing

When a possible correlation or similar relation between phenomena is investigated, such as, for example, whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a disease, that is, at least to some extent and for some patients, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way one might examine a proposed new law of nature: in such an investigation a few cases in which the tested remedy shows no effect do not falsify the hypothesis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if no real relation as hypothesized exists. If that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may as well be due to pure chance.
In statistical hypothesis testing two hypotheses are compared, which are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that states that there is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance).
Proper use of statistical testing requires that these hypotheses, and the threshold (such as 1%) at which the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, all be determined in advance, before the observations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested is already known, the test is invalid.

Copyright Law in India

What is Copyright?

Copyright is a form of intellectual property protection granted under Indian law to the creators of original works of authorship such as literary works (including computer programs, tables and compilations including computer databases which may be expressed in words, codes, schemes or in any other form, including a machine readable medium), dramatic, musical and artistic works, cinematographic films and sound recordings.

Copyright law protects expressions of ideas rather than the ideas themselves. Under section 13 of the Copyright Act 1957, copyright protection is conferred on literary works, dramatic works, musical works, artistic works, cinematograph films and sound recording. For example, books, computer programs are protected under the Act as literary works.

Copyright refers to a bundle of exclusive rights vested in the owner of copyright by virtue of Section 14 of the Act. These rights can be exercised only by the owner of copyright or by any other person who is duly licensed in this regard by the owner of copyright. These rights include the right of adaptation, right of reproduction, right of publication, right to make translations, communication to public etc.

Copyright protection is conferred on all Original literary, artistic, musical or dramatic, cinematograph and sound recording works. Original means, that the work has not been copied from any other source. Copyright protection commences the moment a work is created, and its registration is optional. However it is always advisable to obtain a registration for a better protection. Copyright registration does not confer any rights and is merely a prima facie proof of an entry in respect of the work in the Copyright Register maintained by the Registrar of Copyrights.

As per Section 17 of the Act, the author or creator of the work is the first owner of copyright. An exception to this rule is that, the employer becomes the owner of copyright in circumstances where the employee creates a work in the course of and scope of employment.

Copyright registration is invaluable to a copyright holder who wishes to take a civil or criminal action against the infringer. Registration formalities are simple and the paperwork is least. In case, the work has been created by a person other than employee, it would be necessary to file with the application, a copy of the assignment deed.

One of the supreme advantages of copyright protection is that protection is available in several countries across the world, although the work is first published in India by reason of India being a member of Berne Convention. Protection is given to works first published in India, in respect of all countries that are member states to treaties and conventions to which India is a member. Thus, without formally applying for protection, copyright protection is available to works first published in India, across several countries. Also, the government of India has by virtue of the International Copyright Order, 1999, extended copyright protection to works first published outside India.

Indian perspective on copyright protection:
The Copyright Act, 1957 provides copyright protection in India. It confers copyright protection in the following two forms:
(A) Economic rights of the author, and
(B) Moral Rights of the author.

(A) Economic Rights: The copyright subsists in original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works; cinematographs films and sound recordings. The authors of copyright in the aforesaid works enjoy economic rights u/s 14 of the Act. The rights are mainly, in respect of literary, dramatic and musical, other than computer program, to reproduce the work in any material form including the storing of it in any medium by electronic means, to issue copies of the work to the public, to perform the work in public or communicating it to the public, to make any cinematograph film or sound recording in respect of the work, and to make any translation or adaptation of the work. In the case of computer program, the author enjoys in addition to the aforesaid rights, the right to sell or give on hire, or offer for sale or hire any copy of the computer program regardless whether such copy has been sold or given on hire on earlier occasions. In the case of an artistic work, the rights available to an author include the right to reproduce the work in any material form, including depiction in three dimensions of a two dimensional work or in two dimensions of a three dimensional work, to communicate or issues copies of the work to the public, to include the work in any cinematograph work, and to make any adaptation of the work. In the case of cinematograph film, the author enjoys the right to make a copy of the film including a photograph of any image forming part thereof, to sell or give on hire or offer for sale or hire, any copy of the film, and to communicate the film to the public. These rights are similarly available to the author of sound recording. In addition to the aforesaid rights, the author of a painting, sculpture, drawing or of a manuscript of a literary, dramatic or musical work, if he was the first owner of the copyright, shall be entitled to have a right to share in the resale price of such original copy provided that the resale price exceeds rupees ten thousand.

(B) Moral Rights: Section 57 of the Act defines the two basic “moral rights” of an author. These are:
(i) Right of paternity, and
(ii) Right of integrity.

The right of paternity refers to a right of an author to claim authorship of work and a right to prevent all others from claiming authorship of his work. Right of integrity empowers the author to prevent distortion, mutilation or other alterations of his work, or any other action in relation to said work, which would be prejudicial to his honour or reputation. The proviso to section 57(1) provides that the author shall not have any right to restrain or claim damages in respect of any adaptation of a computer program to which section 52 (1)(aa) applies (i.e. reverse engineering of the same). It must be noted that failure to display a work or to display it to the satisfaction of the author shall not be deemed to be an infringement of the rights conferred by this section. The legal representatives of the author may exercise the rights conferred upon an author of a work by section 57(1), other than the right to claim authorship of the work..

Indian Judiciary Response:
The response of Indian judiciary regarding copyright protection can be grouped under the following headings:
(1) Ownership of copyright,
(2) Jurisdictional aspect,
(3) Cognizance taken by the court,
(4) Infringement of copyright,
(5) Availability of alternative remedy, and
(6) Rectification of copyright.
(1) Ownership of copyright: The ownership in copyright may vest in different persons under different circumstances.

In Eastern Book company v Navin J.Desai, the question involved was whether there is any copyright in the reporting of the judgment of a court. The Delhi High court observed: “It is not denied that under section 2(k) of the Copyright Act, a work which is made or published under the direction or control of any Court, tribunal or other judicial authority in India is a Government work. Under section 52(q), the reproduction or publication of any judgment or order of a court, tribunal or other judicial authority shall not constitute infringement of copyright of the government in these works. It is thus clear that it is open to everybody to reproduce and publish the government work including the judgment/ order of a court. However, in case, a person by extensive reading, careful study and comparison and with the exercise of taste and judgment has made certain comments about judgment or has written a commentary thereon, may be such a comment and commentary is entitled to protection under the Copyright Act”.

The court further observed: “In terms of section 52(1)(q) of the Act, reproduction of a judgment of the court is an exception to the infringement of the Copyright. The orders and judgments of the court are in the public domain and anyone can publish them. Not only that being a Government work, no copyright exists in these orders and judgments. No one can claim copyright in these judgments and orders of the court merely on the ground that he had first published them in his book. Changes consisting of elimination, changes of spelling, elimination or addition of quotations and corrections of typographical mistakes are trivial and hence no copyright exists therein”.

In Godrej Soaps (P) Ltd v Dora Cosmetics Co, the Delhi High Court held that where the carton was designed for valuable consideration by a person in the course of his employment for and on behalf of the plaintiff and the defendant had led no evidence in his favour, the plaintiff is the assignee and the legal owner of copyright in the carton including the logo.

(2) Jurisdictional aspect: The question of territorial jurisdiction of the court to deal with copyright infringement was considered by the courts on several occasions.

In Caterpillar Inc v Kailash Nichani, the plaintiff, a foreign company, was carrying on business in several places in India including Delhi, through its Indian distributors and collaborators. The plaintiff claimed the relief of ad-interim injunction for preventing infringement of its copyright by the defendant, though the defendant was dealing in different goods. The Delhi high Court held that it was not necessary to show that the business being carried on by the plaintiff in Delhi should necessarily be in respect of footwear and articles of clothing as well. It is sufficient if the business was being carried on by the plaintiff in Delhi and further that there was an infringement of plaintiff’s copyright in respect of certain goods, which were being sold by the defendant in Delhi. The court further held that section 62 of the Copyright Act makes an obvious and significant departure from the norm that the choice of jurisdiction should primarily be governed by the convenience of the defendant. The legislature in its wisdom introduced this provision laying down absolutely opposite norm than the one set out in section 20 CPC. The purpose is to expose the transgressor with inconvenience rather than compelling the sufferer to chase after the former.

In Lachhman Das Behari Lal v Padam Trading Co, the Delhi High Court observed that the plaintiff being a firm functioning at Delhi, the suit filed by it in the Delhi courts is maintainable and is not liable to be rejected under Order 7 Rule 11 of the CPC as prayed. The Court further observed that the plea regarding want of territorial jurisdiction is not covered by Order7 rule 11 of CPC. The court observed that even if it is held that this court has not the territorial jurisdiction, the plaint cannot be rejected. At the most it can be returned for presentation to the proper court.

In Exphar SA & Anr v Eupharma Laboratories Ltd & Anr, the Supreme Court finally settled the position in this regard. The Court observed: “Section 62(2) cannot be read as limiting the jurisdiction of the District Court only to cases where the person instituting the suit or other proceeding or where there are more than one such persons, any of them actually and voluntarily resides or carries on business or presently works for gain. It prescribes an additional ground for attracting the jurisdiction of a court over and above the “normal” grounds as laid down in Section 20 of the C.P.C. Even if the jurisdiction of the Court were restricted in the manner construed by the Division Bench, it is evident not only from the cause title but also from the body of the plaint that the Appellant No 2 carries on business within the jurisdiction of the Delhi High Court. The Appellant No 2 certainly “a person instituting the suit”. The Division Bench went beyond the express words of the statute and negatived the jurisdiction of the Court because it found that the Appellant No 2 had not claimed ownership of the copyright, infringement of which was claimed in the suit. The appellant No 2 may not be entitled to the relief claimed in the suit but that is no reason for holding that it was not a person who had instituted the suit within the meaning of Section 62(2) of the Act”.

(3) Cognizance taken by the court: To prevent copyright infringement, timely cognizance taking by the appropriate court is absolutely essential. The taking of cognizance by the court depends upon the limitation period as mentioned in the Limitation Act, 1963 and Cr.P.C, 1973.

In David Pon Pandian v State, the Madras High Court, while dealing with section 68A of the Copyright Act, observed: “ The Court can take cognizance of the offence if the charge sheet is filed within the period of limitation prescribed under Section 468 of the Cr.P.C and in computing the period of limitation, the date of commission of the offence is to be reckoned as the starting point. If the charge sheet is not filled so, the Court has no power to entertain the complaint”

The court referred the decision of the Supreme Court in State of Punjab v Sarwan Singh in which it was observed: “The object of Cr.P.C in putting a bar of limitation on the prosecution was clearly to prevent the parties from filing cases after a long time, as a result of which material evidence may disappear and also to prevent abuse of the process of Court by filing vexatious and belated prosecutions long after the date of the offence. The object, which the statute seeks to sub-serve, is clearly in consonance with the concept of fairness of trial as enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution. It is, therefore, of utmost importance that any prosecution, whether by State or a private complainant, must abide by the letter of the law or to take the risk of the prosecution failing on the ground of limitation”

In Shree Devendra Somabhai Naik v Accurate Transheet Pvt Ltd, the Gujarat High Court explained the inter-relationship between Article 137 of the Limitation Act, 1963 and section 50 of the Copyright Act, 1957. The Court observed: “ The order passed by the by the Copyright Board is an order whereby it is held that the provisions of Article 137 of the Limitation Act are not applicable and the board has also held that the Copyright Board is a Tribunal and quasi-judicial authority for all other purposes except for the purposes which are specifically provided in the Copyright Act. It is an order by which an application under Section 50 of the Copyright act is entertained and the Copyright Board will decide the same on merits. The Copyright Board does not believe the delay alleged by the present appellant. Entertaining an application is a matter of discretion. In the present case, the Copyright Board in its wisdom, overruling the contention that the application was barred by limitation, decided to entertain the application. It is a discretionary order”.

(4) Infringement of copyright: A copyright owner cannot enjoy his rights unless infringement of the same is stringently dealt with by the Courts .The approach of the Indian Judiciary in this regard is very satisfactory.

In Prakashak Puneet Prashant Prakashan v Distt.judge, Bulandshahr &Ashok Prakashan (Regd) the Allahabad High Court held that if the petitioner publishes a book by adding any word before or after the book “Bal Bharati”, he infringes the copyright of the respondent.

In Hindustan Pencils Ltd v Alpna Cottage Industries the Copyright Board of Goa held that where the similarities between the artistic works of the parties are fundamental and substantial in material aspects, it would amount to copyright violation and the defendant’s copyright is liable to be expunged from the register of copyright.

The Board referred the decision of Prem Singh v Cec Industries wherein it was observed: “ In a case where the first party himself is shown to have adopted or imitated a trademark and copyright of a third party, then Courts can resolutely decline to step in aid of this party because honesty of action is the crux of the matter and Courts protection is extended only on the principle that damage to a party who has acquired goodwill or reputation in certain trading style for making his goods, should not be allowed to be affected by the dishonest user of the same by another”.

The Board further referred the decision of the apex court in R.G. Anand v M/S Delux Films where the Court observed: “Where the same idea is being developed in a different manner, it is manifest that the source being common, similarities are bound to occur. In such a case, the Courts should determine whether or not the similarities are on fundamental or substantial aspects of the mode of expression adopted in the copyrighted work with some variations here and here. In other words, in order to be actionable the copy must be a substantial and material one which at once leads to the conclusion that the defendant is guilty of the act of piracy”.

In Ushodaya Enterprises Ltd v T.V. Venugopal the division bench of the Andhara Pradesh High Court held that even though the defendant has registered the carton under the Trademark Act, that may not come to the aid of the defendant as the case of the plaintiff is that it owns a copyright of the artistic work under the Copyright Act and no registration is required for the same. Thus the court held that the plaintiff was justified in alleging infringement of his artistic work.

In Khajanchi Film Exchange v state of MP the appellants apprehending the violation of their copyright in the film, prayed for the writ of “Mandamus” without first exhausting the alternative remedy available under the Copyright Act. The Division Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court Observed: “ There is no dispute in the submission that it is the duty of police to be watchful in the area and detect crime and punish the criminal in accordance with law. But the petitioners did not complain that any stage nor did they seek action from other functionaries of the State. They ask for mandamus without putting the grievance before the respondent and seeking their reaction. The writ petition was filed 16 days before the release of the film. Enough time appellants had, to approach the authorities/ police and later to the respondents giving their reaction to the grievance and how it was ready to deal with the matter. Therefore, unless the demand was put across and reaction awaited for some time, moving the court was premature and unsustainable. Therefore, petition was filed on mere apprehension that appellants would be deprived of their rights which did not exist when claim for mandamus was made. Mandamus can be granted only when default, commission, or omission takes place which had not happened in this case”.

In Jolen Inc v Shoban Lal Jain the Madras High Court held that latches and acquiescence is a good defence to an action for copyright infringement. The court held that the plaintiff having allowed the defendant to carry on the business under the trade name of the plaintiff for 7 years is prima facie guilty of acquiescence and it cannot claim for relief of injunction against the defendant as the balance of convenience is in favour of him.

(5) Availability of alternative remedy: The availability of an efficacious alternative remedy prevents a person from invoking the writ jurisdiction of the High court.

In Khajanchi Film Exchange and Another v State of M.P and others petitioners instead of approaching the concerned authorities filed a writ petition in the High Court. The Madhya Pradesh High Court observed: “ The film was not yet released. The petitioners did not approach the respondents. There was no failure on the part of the respondents in performance of their legal duties with respect of the right complained of. The entire machinery was put to doubt by the petitioners on the basis of the averments made in the writ petition that it is to the common knowledge that they do not take action. Thus apprehending infringement of their rights, the writ petition was filed. The petitioners should have approached the concerned authorities first; and in the event of their failure to take preventive measures/seizure of cassettes under the M.P.Police Regulations and the copyright Act, the petitioners should have approached this Court. If a writ is entertained and relief readily granted before release of the movie without approaching the respondents who have to prevent threatened violation of copyright, it would open a flood gate of litigation. The copyright Act provides adequate safeguards and procedure. It cannot be said that a mere apprehension that certain offence may take place, a writ can be filed seeking a direction that no such offence be allowed to take place. First authorities have to be asked to prevent it. The function of the police is to prevent piracy and unauthorized exhibition. In the instant case there was no inaction on the part of the police and other concerned officials and they were unnecessarily dragged in writ petition without even putting them to notice of proposed writ. No demand notice was served, no specific complaint was lodged. Thus writ is not maintainable”.

(6) Rectification of copyright: In the rectification proceedings, an entry in the Copyright Register pertaining to a particular copyright can be expunged by the Copyright Board.

In Lal Babu Priyadarshi v Badshah Industries the Division bench of the Patna high Court Observed: “ Rule 16(3) of the Copyright Rules, 1958 which embodies the principle of natural justice provides that when there is a rival claim with regard to subject matter of the copyright then no order can be passed in favour of any party without hearing the application of the other applicant. Non-observance of the said provision will vitiate the order with regard to the entry in the Register of the Copyright. The said requirement cannot be waived nor non-observance of the said provision can be said to be a mere irregularity. If a person making an application under section 45 is not aware of the rival claim then the matter would be different. But in this case, as is evident from the notice sent by the appellants through their counsel, they were aware of the claim of the respondents and as such they should have given notice to the respondents intimating them of their intention to file an application for registration so that the respondents could have raised objections and, thereafter, the matter would have been decided in terms of provisions contained in Section 45, read with Rule 16. In this case Rule 16 has not been followed before making the entry in the Register of Copyright under section 45 and, thus, the Board rightly came to the conclusion that non-observance of the provisions of Rule16 (3), which is mandatory in nature, has vitiated the certificate of registration in favour the appellants”.

Copyright Infringement:
Direct Infringement: Direct infringement is a strict liability offence and guilty intention is not essential to fix criminal liability. The requirements to establish a case of copyright infringement under this theory are:
(1) Ownership of a valid copyright; and
(2) Copying or infringement of the copyrighted work by the defendant.

Thus, a person who innocently or even accidentally infringes a copyright may be held liable under the Copyright Act of the U.S. and under the laws of various other countries. The guilty intention of the offender can be taken into account for determining the quantum of damages to be awarded for the alleged infringement.

Contributory infringement: The contributory infringement pre-supposes the existence of knowledge and participation by the alleged contributory infringer. To claim damages for infringement of the copyright, the plaintiff has to prove:
(1) That the defendant knew or should have known of the infringing activity; and
(2) That the defendant induced, caused, or materially contributed to another person’s infringing activity.

Vicarious Infringement: Vicarious copyright infringement liability evolved from the principle of respondent superior. To succeed on a claim of vicarious liability for a direct infringer’s action, a plaintiff must show that the defendant:
(1) Had the right and ability to control the direct infringer’s actions; and
(2) Derived a direct financial benefit from the infringing activity.

Thus, vicarious liability focuses not on the knowledge and participation but on the relationship between the direct infringer and the defendant.

Legal precedent for vicarious copyright infringement liability has developed along two general relational lines. The first relational line involves the employer/employee relationship, whereas the second involves the lessor/lessee relationship.

Internet and copyright infringement theories: The advent of information technology has made it difficult to apply the traditional theories to various cyberspace entities and organizations. These cyberspace players can be grouped under the following headings:
(1) Internet Service Providers (ISPs),
(2) Bulletin Board Services Operators (BBSO),
(3) Commercial Web Page owner/operators, and
(4) Private users.

(1) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): An ISP most often provides Internet access and he may be held liable for copyright infringement. In Religious Technology Center v Netcom On-Line Communication Services, Inc a former minister uploaded some of the copyrighted work of the Church of Scientology to the Internet. He first transferred the information to a BBS computer, where it was temporarily stored before being copied onto Netcom’s computer and other Usenet computers. Once the information was on Netcom’s computer, it was available to Netcom’s subscribers and Usenet neighbors for downloading for up to eleven days. The plaintiffs informed Netcom about the infringing activity; nonetheless, Netcom refused to deny the subscriber’s access because it was not possible to prescreen the subscriber’s uploads, and kicking the subscriber off the Internet meant kicking off the rest of the BBS operator’s subscribers. Thus, plaintiffs sought a remedy against Netcom for infringement under all three theories –direct, contributory, and vicarious.

The court first analyzed whether Netcom directly infringed plaintiff’s copyright. Since Netcom did not violate plaintiff’s exclusive copying, distribution, or display rights, Netcom was held not liable for direct infringement. The court then analyzed the third party liability theories of contributory and vicarious infringement. The court held that Netcom would be liable for contributory infringement if plaintiffs proved that Netcom had knowledge of the infringing activity. The court then analyzed whether Netcom was vicariously liable. Here, once again the court found that a genuine issue of material fact supporting Netcom’s right and ability to control the uploader’s acts existed. The court found that Netcom did not receive direct financial benefit from the infringement. Thus, the court found that the Netcom was not liable for direct infringement, could be liable for contributory infringement if plaintiffs proved the knowledge element, and was not liable for vicarious infringement.

(2) Bulletin Board Services: The BBSs are more vulnerable to copyright infringement litigations than the ISPs because they can operate independent of the World Wide Web.

The first case in this category was Playboy Enterprises, Inc v Frena.In this case, the defendant operated a subscription BBS that allowed the subscribers to view, upload, and download material. The court held that Frena had violated Playboy’s exclusive distribution right and their exclusive display right. Because Frena supplied a product containing unauthorized copies of copyrighted work, he has violated the distribution right. Moreover, because Frena publicly displayed Playboy’s copyrighted photographs to subscribers, he violated the display right. The court concluded that Frena was liable for direct infringement, though Frena himself never placed infringing material on the BBS and despite his arguments that he was unaware of the infringement. The court relied upon the strict liability theory and held that neither intent nor knowledge is an essential element of infringement.

In Sega v Maphia the BBS was providing services to numerous subscribers who upload and downloaded files to and from the BBS. The evidence clearly showed that the BBS operator knew that subscribers were uploading unauthorized copies of Sega’s video games to and downloaded from his BBS. The court held that since the BBS operators only knew and encouraged uploading and downloading, but did not himself upload or download any files, he was not liable for direct infringement. The court, however, found the BBS operator contributory liable. Regarding the knowledge element, the BBS operator admitted that he had knowledge of the uploading and downloading activity. The court rejected the BBS operator’s asserted fair use defense since their activities were clearly commercial in nature. Further, the nature of the copyrighted games was creative rather than informative and the entire copyrighted works were copied, uploaded, and downloaded. This copying had adversely affected the Sega’s sale.

(3) Commercial Web sites: The Web Page owners must be cautious of the things they post on their Web Pages so that they do not violate the stringent provisions of the copyright laws. A Web Page owner cannot successfully plead and prove that they were unaware about the copyrighted material because copyright notices are prominently given in authorized software. They also have the controlling power over the content of their pages. The owner are usually the parties that actually perform the uploads to their pages.

(4) Private Users: A computer user who uploads copyrighted material to the Internet is liable for direct infringement. This liability could be avoided only if he can prove the fair use doctrine. Thus, an Internet user should not post copyrighted material on the Internet in a casual manner.

On-line copyright issues in India:
The reference to on-line copyright issues can be found in the following two major enactments:
(1) The Copyright Act, 1957, and
(2) The Information Technology Act, 2000.

(1) Copyright Act, 1957 and on-line copyright issues: The following provisions of the Copyright Act, 1957 can safely be relied upon for meeting the challenges of information technology:

(a) The inclusive definition of computer is very wide which includes any electronic or similar device having information processing capabilities. Thus, a device storing or containing a copyrighted material cannot be manipulated in such a manner as to violate the rights of a copyright holder.

(b) The term computer Programme has been defined to mean a set of instructions expressed in words, codes, schemes or in any other form, including a machine readable medium, capable of causing a computer to perform a particular task or achieve a particular result. It must be noted that Section13(a) read with Section 2(o) confers a copyright in computer Programme and its infringement will attract the stringent penal and civil sanctions.

(c) The inclusive definition of literary work includes computer programmes, tables and compilations including computer databases. Thus, the legislature has taken adequate care and provided sufficient protection for computer related copyrights.

(d) The copyrighted material can be transferred or communicated to the public easily and secretly through electronic means. To take care of such a situation, the Copyright Act has provided the circumstances which amount to communication to the public. Thus, making any work available for being seen or heard or otherwise enjoyed by the public directly or by any means of display or diffusion other than by issuing copies of such work regardless of whether any member of the public actually sees, hears or otherwise enjoys the work so made available, may violate the copyright. The communication through satellite or cable or any other means of simultaneous communication to more than one household or place of residence including residential rooms of any hotel or hostel shall be deemed to be communication to the public

(e) The copyright in a work is infringed if it is copied or published without its owner’s consent. The Copyright Act provides that a work is published if a person makes available a work to the public by issue of copies or by communicating the work to the public. Thus, the ISPs, BBS providers, etc may be held liable for copyright violation if the facts make out a case for the same.

(f) The copyright in a work shall be deemed to be infringed when a person, without a license granted by the owner of the copyright or the Registrar of Copyrights under this Act or in contravention of the conditions of a license so granted or of any condition imposed by a competent authority under this Act-
(i) Does anything, the exclusive right to do which is by this Act conferred upon the owner of the copyright, or
(ii) Permits for profit any place to be used for the communication of the work to the public where such communication constitutes an infringement of the copyright in the work, unless he was not aware and had no reasonable ground for believing that such communication to the public would be an infringement of copyright.

(g) The Copyright Act specifically exempts certain acts from the purview of copyright infringement. Thus, the making of copies or adaptation of a computer Programme by the lawful possessor of a copy of such computer Programme from such copy in order to utilize the computer Programme for the purpose for which it was supplied or to make back-up copies purely as a temporary protection against loss, destruction, or damage in order only to utilize the computer Programme for the purpose for which it was supplied, would not be copyright infringement. Similarly, the doing of any act necessary to obtain information essential for operating inter-operability of an independently created computer Programme with other programmed by a lawful possessor of a computer Programme is not a copyright violation if such information is not otherwise readily available. Further, there will not be any copyright violation in the observation, study or test of functioning of the computer Programme in order to determine the ideas and principles, which underline any elements of the Programme while performing such acts necessary for the functions for which the computer Programme was supplied. The Act also makes it clear that the making of copies or adaptation of the computer Programme from a personally legally obtained copy for non-commercial personal use will not amount to copyright violation.

(h) If a person knowingly makes use on a computer of an infringing copy of a computer Programme, he shall be held liable for punishment of imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than seven days but which may extend to three years and with fine which shall not be less than fifty thousand rupees but which may extend to two lakh rupees. However, if the computer Programme has not been used for gain or in the course of trade or business, the court may, for adequate and special reasons to be mentioned in the judgment, not impose any sentence of imprisonment and may impose a fine which may extend to fifty thousand rupees.

It must be noted that copyright can be obtained in a computer Programme under the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1957. Hence, a computer Programme cannot be copied, circulated, published or used without the permission of the copyright owner. If it is illegally or improperly used, the traditional copyright infringement theories can be safely and legally invoked. Further, if the medium of Internet is used to advance that purpose, invoking the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1957 and supplementing them with the stringent provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000, can prevent the same.

(2) Information Technology Act, 2000 and on-line copyright issues: The following provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000 are relevant to understand the relationship between copyright protection and information technology:

(a) Section 1(2) read with Section 75 of the Act provides for extra-territorial application of the provisions of the Act. Thus, if a person (including a foreign national) violates the copyright of a person by means of computer, computer system or computer network located in India, he would be liable under the provisions of the Act.

(b) If any person without permission of the owner or any other person who is in charge of a computer, computer system or computer network accesses or secures access to such computer, computer system or computer network or downloads, copies or extracts any data, computer data base or information from such computer, computer system or computer network including information or data held or stored in any removable storage medium, he shall be liable to pay damages by way of compensation not exceeding one crore rupees to the person so affected. Thus, a person violating the copyright of another by downloading or copying the same will have to pay exemplary damages up to the tune of rupees one crore which is deterrent enough to prevent copyright violation.

(c) While adjudging the quantum of compensation, the adjudicating officer shall have to consider the following factors:
(i) The amount of gain or unfair advantage, wherever quantifiable, made as the result of the default;
(ii) The amount of loss caused to any person as a result of the default;
(iii) The repetitive nature of the default.

Thus, if the copyright is violated intentionally and for earning profit, the quantum of damages will be more as compared to innocent infringement.

(d) A network service provider (ISP) will not be liable under this Act, rules or regulations made there under for any third party information or data made available by him if he proves that the offence or contravention was committed without his knowledge or that he had exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence or contravention. The network service provider under section 79 means an intermediary and third party information means any information dealt with by a network service provider in his capacity as an intermediary.

(e) The provisions of this Act shall have overriding effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other law for the time being in force.[55]

The future of copyright in India:
The copyright laws in India are set to be amended with the introduction of the provisions for anti-circumvention and Rights Management Information in the Indian copyright regime although India is under no obligation to introduce these changes as it is not a signatory to WCT or WPPT.

With the amendment of the Copyright Act in 1994, which came into force on 10 May 1995, the situation with regard to copyright enforcement in India has improved. According to Ramdas Bhatkal of Popular Prakashan, Bombay, "We had problems of piracy relating to medical textbooks before the law was amended. At that time we found that while the law may be on our side, it was necessary to get a court order for search and this meant that there was sufficient notice to the pirate to take defensive action before the court order could be implemented. Therefore we preferred to accept the situation and did nothing. Since the changes which make copyright violation a cognizable offence it has been possible to use the legal mechanism as a deterrent."

Section 64 of the Indian Copyright Act 1957 provides that "Any police officer, not below the rank of a sub-inspector, may, if he is satisfied that an offence under Section 63 in respect of the infringement of copyright in any work has been, is being, or is likely to be, committed, seize without warrant, all copies of the work, wherever found, and all copies and plates used for the purpose of making infringing copies of the work, wherever found, and all copies and plates so seized shall, as soon as practicable, be produced before a magistrate."

"Copying a book is similar to stealing somebody's jewellery. Large scale organized copying is like robbing a jeweller's shop or a bank. But then, there is a major difference. In the case of a bank robbery the newspapers are full of sensational news and the whole might of the State, especially the police, jumps in to catch the culprit, there is pressure of public opinion even on the judge trying the case. The effect is electric.

On the other hand, in the case of a book pirate, the police justify their inaction by pointing to murder dockets; the State deflects the desperate appeals of Copyright owners with nonchalance and the judge sits with a `so what' attitude while the man on the street remains in stark oblivion.

"The copyright does not protect the idea but it does protect the skill and the labour put in by the authors in producing the work. A person cannot be held liable for infringement of copyright if he has taken only the idea involved in the work and given expression to the idea in his own way. Two authors can produce two different works from a common source of information each of them arranging that information in his own way and using his own language. The arrangement of the information and the language used should not be copied from a work in which copyright subsists."

Before I conclude, I must make it clear that despite the variety of cases given in this paper, there is not much piracy of books in India. By and large, to save their business interests, publishers and distributors try to enforce copyright to the best of their abilities. Yet, piracy hurts them hard because the books which get pirated invariably are the few with good margin and high demand. Deprived of the profits from such bestsellers the book industry starved of the much needed capital for growth and investment in literary works of significance but low sales potential, especially by up-coming authors. Harsher measures are therefore needed to curb piracy.

Another area of copyright infringement which needs to be tightened up relates to protection of author's rights vis-a-vis the assignee or the licensee. There is need to develop a model contract, too, which should also provide protection for the author's rights in the fast changing scenario of electronic publishing, Internet, etc.

Conclusion:
The provisions of the abovementioned two enactments show that the Copyright protection in India is strong and effective enough to take care of the Copyright of the concerned person. The protection extends not only to the Copyright as understood in the traditional sense but also in its modern aspect. Thus, on-line copyright issues are also adequately protected, though not in clear and express term. To meet the ever- increasing challenges, as posed by the changed circumstances and latest technology, the existing law can be so interpreted that all facets of copyright are adequately covered. This can be achieved by applying the “purposive interpretation” technique, which requires the existing law to be interpreted in such a manner as justice is done in the fact and circumstances of the case. Alternatively, existing laws should be amended as per the requirements of the situation. The existing law can also be supplemented with newer ones, specifically touching and dealing with the contemporary issues and problems. The Information Technology Act, 2000 requires a new outlook and orientation, which can be effectively used to meet the challenges posed by the “Intellectual Property Rights” regime in this age of information technology. Till the country has such a sound and strong legal base for the protection of Intellectual Property Rights, the judiciary should play an active role in the protection of these rights, including the copyright. The situation is, however, not as alarming as it is perceived and the existing legal system can effectively take care of any problems associated with copyright infringement.